Makemake

 

Makemake

Dwarf planet in the Solar system

Makemake ( minor- planet designation 136472 Makemake ) is a likely dwarf planet and perhaps the second largest Kuiper belt object in the classical population, with a diameter approximately two- third that of Pluto. Makemake has one known satellites S/2015 ( 136472 ) 1. Makemake's extremely low average temperature, about 40 K ( -230 °C ) , means it's surface is covered with methene, and possibly nitrogen ices.

Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005 by a team led by Michael Brown and announced on July 29, 2005 . Initially it was known as 2005 FY9 and later given the minor planet number  136472. In July 2008 it was named after Makemake the creater god of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island, under the expectations by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) that it would prove to be a dwarf planet.

Discovery

Makemake was discovered by on March 31, 2005 by a team at the Palomar Observatory led by Michael E. Brown, and was announced to the public on July 29, 2005. The team planned to delay announcing their discoveries of the bright object Makemake and Eris until further observations and calculations were complete, but announced them both on July 29. Makemake is the brightest trans-Neptunian object after Pluto. Indeed with an appearent magnitude of 16.2 in late 1930, it is theoretically bright enough to have been discovered by Clyde Tombaugh, whose search for trans- Neptunian objects was sensitive to objects up to magnitude 17.

Name

The provisional designation 2005 FY9 was given to Makemake when the discovery was made public. Before that the discovery term used the codename "Easter Bunny" for the object, because of its Discovery shortly after Easter. 

In July 2008 in accordance with IAU for the classical Kuiper  belt object 2005 FY9 was given the name of a creator deity. The name of Makemake the creator of humanity and God of fertile in the myths of the Rapa Nui, the native people to preserve of Easter Island, was chosen in part to preserve the objects connection with Easter. 

Makemake  is a classical Kuiper belt object (KBO) which means its orbit lies far Enough from Neptune to remain stable over the age of the solar system. Unlike plutinos which can cross Neptune orbit due to their 2:3 resonance with the planet, the classical objects have perihelia furthe from the ⛅ Sun free from Neptune perturbation. Makemake is probably coincidentally near the 13:7 resonances with Neptune.

Physical characteristics 

Makemake is currently visually 2nd brightest Kuiper belt object after Pluto having a March opposition appearent magnitude of 17.0 . It will pass from its present constellation Coma Berenices to Booted in December 2027. It is bright enough to be visible using a high end amateur telescope. The rotation period of Makemake is estimated at 22.83 hours. A rotation period of 7.77 hours published in 2009 later turned out to be an alias of the actual rotation period. Makemake's is light curve amplitude is small, only 0.03 mag. This was thought to be due to Makemake currently being viewed pole on from Earth; however S/ 2015 ( 136472 ) 1's orbital plane.

Like Pluto, Makemake appears red on the visible spectrum and significantly redder than the surface of Eris. Makemake was expected to have an atmosphere similar to that of Pluto but with a lower surface pressure. The result showed that Makemake presently lacks a substantial atmosphere and placed an upper limit of 4- 12 nanobar on the pressure at its surface.

Satellites

Makemake has a single known moon which had discovered in 2015 or  2016. It  is estimated to be around 200 km ( 120 mi ) or less in diameter, assuming if it has a dark surface with low reflectivity.

Exploration 

It has been calculated that a fly by mission to Makemake could take just over fifteen year using a Jupiter gravity assist on a launch date of 21st August 2024 for 24 August 2036. Makemake would be approximately 52 AU from the ⛅ Sun when the spacecraft arrives.

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Earth's ( Facts)

 Some important facts about Earth :

1. Earth is the third planet from the Sun in the solar system. It's names comes from the old English and Germanic words meaning " the ground".
2. There are a lot of different way to measure how long it take the earth to go around the sun but if you say it take Pi × 10 million second you will only be off by a half a percent.
3. The earth has the volume of about 1 trillion cubic kilometre.  Can you picture a cube 1000 metre high 1000 thousand deep, 1000 meters across? Now picture a trillion of them. That's the Earth.  Actually if you were that big, it would be easy.
4. The Earth has a mass of 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg, or if you prefer, 6 six tillion ton. In pounds , that's actually ...0. nothing. Mass is a measure of how hard gravity pulls on that mass. The Earth is in space, orbiting the Sun so it's in free fall . It has mass but no weight at all.
5. The Earth isn't a perfect sphere. It spins so it's a flattened at poles a little bit. The diameter through the poles is 13, 713.6 km ( 7882.4 miles ) but it's 12,756.2 km ( 7908.8 miles ) through the equator. That difference of 43 km is only about 0.3 percent though so really we're pretty close to a perfect sphere.
6. Not only is it flattened but the gravitational force of the ⛅sun and 🌒 Moon distort its shape even more pulling bulges out from it. The Earth is lumpy!out in the deep ocean  the bulges of water due to the ⛅ sun and the moon can have an amplitude ( change in height from maximum to minimum ) of about a meter ( 40 inches) . The solid Earth deforms due to the tides too with an amplitude of roughly 50 cm  ( 20 inches) . Even the air is affected by tides; though there are several factors that greatly complicate it. 
7. There is no physical place where Earth's atmosphere stops  and space begins the air just get thinner and thinner and eventually fades height above the Earth surface considered to be where space begin called the Karman line is at an altitude of 100 km. Anyone who gets higher than that is considered an astronaut.
8. The 🌒 Moon radius is about 1/4 that of the Earth's making it the largest satellite compared to its parent planet. Charon, Pluto  biggest moon is about half the diameter of Pluto itself .
9. The 🌒 Moon is farther away from the Earth than you think. As na analogy, if  the Earth were a basketball, the Moon would be the size of a tennis ball 7.4 meters ( 24 feet )  away.
10. The Earth atmosphere is only transparent to a narrow slice of the electromagnetic spectrum . What we call visible light gets through, but most flavour of infrared, ultraviolet, X rays and gamma rays are stopped cold. Those last few are dangerous to life as we know it, so that works out well.
11. The Earth is warming up. It's a fact.
12. Fewer than 200 impact craters have been cataloged on Earth . The Moon has billion. Old craters on the Earth are hundreds of millions of years olds; on the Moon those would be considered young.
13. An asteroid, 2010 TK7 shares an orbit with the Earth. It's about 300 meters ( 1000 feet ) across and never gets close enough to us to be a danger.

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Pallas

Pallas ( The asteroid )

Large asteroid of the main asteroid belt

Pallas ( minor planet designation: 2 Pallas ) is the second asteroid to have been discovered after, 1 Ceres. It is the third largest asteroid in the solar system by both volume and mass and is a likely remnant protoplanet. With an estimated 7% of the mass of the Asteroid belt it is the three equator the mass of four Vesta and slightly under a quarter the mass of Ceres. It is about 510 kilometres ( 320 mi ) in diameter, slightly smaller than Vesta. It was discovered on 28 March 1802. When Pallas were discovered by the German astronomer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers, it was counted as a planet as were other asteroids in the early 19 century. The discovery of many more asteroid after 1845 eventually led to their reclassification. Pallas surface is most likely composed of a silicate material its spectrum and estimated density resemble carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. With an orbital inclination of 34.8°, Pallas orbit is unusually highly inclined to the plane of the asteroid belt, making Pallas relatively inaccessible to spacecraft, and it's orbital eccentricity is nearly as large as that of Pluto. 

It was considered as a potential dwarf planet in 2006 but it has since been determined that its shape depart significantly from an ellipsoid disqualifying it.

On the night of 5 April 1779 Charles Messier recorded Pallas on start chat you to track the path of comet (  now known as C/1779, ( Bode) ) that he observed in the spring of 1779, bit apparently  assumed it was nothing more than a 🌟 star. In 1801 the astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered an object which he initially believed to be a comet.  Shortly thereafter he announced his observations of this object, nothing that he slow, uniform motion was uncharacteristic of a comet , suggesting it was a different type of object.  This was lost from sight for several months, but was recovered later that year by the Baron Von Zach and Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers after a preliminary orbit was computed by Carl Friedrich Gauss.

Later observations

In 1917, the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama began to study asteroid motions. By plotting the mean orbital motion, inclination and eccentricity of a set of asteroid he discovered several distinct grouping. In a later paper he reported a group of three asteroid associated with Pallas, which became named the Pallas family after the largest member of the group. Since 1994 more than 10 member of this family have been identified with semi major axis between 2.50 - 2.82 AU and inclination of 33 - 38°. The validity of the family was confirmed in 2002 by a comparison of their spectra. 

Pallas has been observed occulting 🌟 stars several times including the best observed of all asteroid occultation events, by 140 observer on 29 May 1983. These measurements resulted in the first accurate calculations on 29 May 1979 the discovery of a possible tiny satellite with a diameter of about 1km was reported which was never confirmed. 

Orbit and rotation

Pallas has a high eccentricity and a highly inclined orbit 

Pallas has unusual dynamic parameters for such a large body. It's orbit is highly inclined and moderately eccentric, despite being at a same distance from the Sun as the central part of the asteroid belt. This means that every Palladian summer and winter, large parts of the surface are in constant sunlight or constant darkness for a time on the order of an Earth year, with areas near the poles experiencing continuous sunlight for as long as two years. 

Near resonances

Pallas is in a likely coincidental near -1:1 orbitals resonances with Ceres. Pallas also has a near 18:7 resonances ( 91,000 year period ) and an approximate 5:2 resonance ( 83 years ) with Jupiter.

Transits of planets from Pallas 

From Pallas, the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars and, Earth can occasionally appear to transit, or pass in front of the Sun. Earth last did so in 1968 and 1998, and will next transit in 2224 .  Mercury did in October 2009. The last and next by Venus are in 1677 and 2123 and for Mars they are in 1597 and 2759. 

Physical characteristics

Relative sizes of the four largest asteroids. Pallas is second from right.

Pallas is farther from Earth and has much lower albedo than Vesta, and hence is dimmer as seen from Earth. Pallas is a B type asteroid. Based on spectroscopic observations, the primary component of the material on Pallas surface is silicate containing little iron and water.

Pallas is thought to have undergone at least some degree of thermol alteration and partial differentiation, which suggests that it is a remnant protoplanet. Pallas and Vesta are likely survivors from this early stage of planetary formation.

Pallas was on a "watchlist" of objects possibly meeting a provisional definition of "planet" in an early draft of the IAU 2006 definition of planet.

Satellites

A small 🌒 Moon about 1km in diameter was suggested based on occultation data from 29 May 1978. In 1980, speckle interferometry suggested a much larger satellite , whose existence was later refuted a few years later with occultation data.

Exploration

Pallas has not been visited by spacecraft. A flyby after the Dawn probe visits to 4Vesta and 1Ceres was discussed but was not possible. The proposed Athena small sat  mission, if funded , would be launched in 2022 as a secondary payload of the psyche mission and would travel on separate trajectory to a flyby encounter with 2 Pallas.

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Ceres planet

 Ceres ( dwarf planet) 

Largest asteroid and likely dwarf planet.

Ceres minor planet designation is the largest object in the main asteroid belt  that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. With a diameter of 940 km ( 580 mi ), Ceres is both largest of  the asteroids and the only dwarf planet inside its orbit.  It is the 25th largest body in the solar system within the orbit of Neptune. Ceres was the first asteroid to be discovered ( by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo Astronomical Observatory on 1 January 1801 ). It was originally considered a planet but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850 after many other object in similar orbits were discovered. Ceres is the only object in the 

asteroid belt rounded by its own gravity although Vesta and perhaps other asteroid were so in the past. Thus even at its brightest, it is too dim to be seen by the naked eye, except under extremely dark skies. Ceres has been classified as a C type asteroid and, due to the presence of clay minerals, as a G type asteroid.

Ceres appears to be partially differentiated into a muddy ( ice rock) mantle/ core and a less dense but  stronger crust that is at most 30 precent ice. It probably no longer has an internal ocean of liquid water, but there  is brine that can flow through the outer mantle and reach the surface. The surface is mixture of water ice  and various hydrated minerals such as  carbonates and clay. The atmosphere however, is transient and of the minimal kind known as an exosphere. The robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn entered orbit around Ceres on 6 March 2015. Johann Elert Bode, in 1772, first suggested that an undiscovered planet could exist between the orbit of Mars  and Jupiter. The pattern predicted that the missing planet ought to have an orbit with a radius near 2.8 astronomical unit ( AU ). 

Classification

The categorisation of  Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement. Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the " missing planet " he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter, at a distance of 419 million km ( 2.8 ) AU from the Sun. Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol, and remined listed as a planet in astronomy book and tables ( along with 2 Pallas, 3 Juno, and 4 Vista ) for half a century . 

As the other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of  Ceres, it was realised that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects. 

Ceres ( bottom left ), the Moon and Earth, shown to scale.

The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. By this definition Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbits sharing it as it it does with the thousand of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about 25% of the belts total mass. Bodies that made the first proposed definition but not the second such as Ceres were classified as dwarf planet. Ceres is the largest asteroid in the main belt. It has sometimes been assumed that Ceres was reclassified as a dwarf planet and that is therefore no longer considered as an asteroid. However NASA has at least once referred to Vista the largest asteroid. Ceres has had the dwarf planet classification since 2006. 

Orbit

Orbit of Ceres

Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter , within the asteroid belt and closer to the orbit of Mars , with a period of 4.6 Earth years.  The orbit is moderately inclined ( I = 10. 6 ° compared to 7 ° for Mercury and 17° for Pluto ) and moderately eccentric ( e = 0.08 compared to 0.09 for Mars ).

The diagram illustrating the orbits of Ceres ( blue ) and several planets ( white and grey ) . The segment of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colour and the orange + sign is the sun location. The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. The top right is a closeup demonstrating the locations of the perihelion ( q ) and aphelion ( Q ) of Ceres and Mars. In this diagram ( but not in general) the perihelion of mass is on the opposite side of the sun from those of Ceres and several of the large main belt asteroid including two Pallas and 10 hygiea. The bottom diagram is a side view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbit of Mars and Jupiter. 

Ceres  was once thought to be a remember of an asteroid family.  

Notable geological features on Ceres

The rotation period of Ceres  ( the Ceresian day ) is 9 hours and 4 minutes. It has an axial of 4°. This is small enough of Ceres polar regions to contain permanently shadowed crater that are expected to act as clod traps and accumulate water ice over time , similar to the situation on the Moon and Mercury . About 0.14% of water molecules released from the surface are expected to end up in the traps , hopping an average of 3 time before escaping or being trapped.

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